Introduction
Sending managers abroad remains a central practice of international firms. Yet expatriate assignments frequently prove harder than expected. This review revisits the main conceptual models that explain how expatriates adapt to a new cultural environment.
1. Culture shock
Oberg (1960) described culture shock as the anxiety that results from losing familiar signs and symbols of social interaction. The notion highlighted that adaptation is not instantaneous and that the first months abroad can be particularly difficult.
2. A multidimensional model of adjustment
Black, Mendenhall and Oddou (1991) integrated several research streams into a comprehensive model distinguishing adjustment to work, to interaction with host nationals and to the general environment. Their model also distinguished factors that operate before departure from those that operate after arrival.
3. Acculturation strategies
Berry (1997) proposed that individuals in contact with another culture adopt different strategies depending on whether they maintain their culture of origin and whether they seek contact with the host society: integration, assimilation, separation or marginalisation. This perspective reminds us that adaptation is also a matter of identity.
4. Individual capabilities
Work on cultural intelligence (Earley & Ang, 2003) adds an individual dimension: some managers are better equipped than others to understand and act in unfamiliar cultural settings, and these capabilities can be developed.
Conclusion
Each model addresses a distinct question: what expatriates experience, which domains of life are affected, how they position themselves between cultures, and what capabilities help them. Combining these perspectives offers a richer basis for preparing and supporting international assignments.
References
- Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34.
- Black, J. S., Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1991). Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: An integration of multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 16(2), 291–317.
- Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Stanford University Press.
- Oberg, K. (1960). Cultural shock: Adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical Anthropology, 7, 177–182.